Questions & explanations
1. With reference to the Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol, consider the following statements: 1. The Paris Agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol as the primary international climate treaty. 2. Unlike Kyoto, the Paris Agreement includes both developed and developing countries in setting emission reduction targets. 3. The Kyoto Protocol’s compliance mechanism was stronger than that of the Paris Agreement. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3
Statement 1 is correct: While the Paris Agreement did not legally abrogate the Kyoto Protocol, it succeeded it as the primary international framework for climate action post-2020, establishing a new, universal approach. Statement 2 is correct: The Kyoto Protocol primarily imposed binding emission reduction targets on developed countries (Annex I Parties), while the Paris Agreement requires all Parties, both developed and developing, to submit and pursue Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Statement 3 is correct: The Kyoto Protocol featured a legally binding compliance mechanism with potential penalties for non-compliance. In contrast, the Paris Agreement's compliance mechanism is facilitative, non-punitive, and based on transparency, reporting, and peer review, making Kyoto's mechanism stronger in terms of enforcement. Therefore, all three statements are correct.
2. Consider the following statements about the Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM):
1. It operates under the Cancun Adaptation Framework.
2. It has an Executive Committee that guides its work.
3. It was established as a permanent institution under the Paris Agreement.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only
Statement 1 is false: the WIM does not 'operate under' the Cancun Adaptation Framework — it was established by COP19 Decision 2/CP.19 and operates under the COP and CMA (Paris Agreement), with its Executive Committee reporting to the SBI and SBSTA. Statement 2 is correct: the WIM is guided by an Executive Committee (WIM ExCom). Statement 3 is false: the WIM was not established by the Paris Agreement (it predates it, having been created at COP19 in 2013); the Paris Agreement (Article 8) recognised the WIM but did not establish it, nor is it a 'permanent institution' in the sense that its mandate is reviewed periodically. Only statement 2 is correct.
3. Which of the following statements about the Kyoto Protocol's second commitment period (2013–2020) is/are correct? 1. It was adopted at COP18 in Doha. 2. It included binding targets for all Annex I countries. 3. The European Union committed to reducing emissions by 20% compared to 1990 levels. Select the correct answer using the code below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only
Statement 1 is correct: The Doha Amendment, establishing the second commitment period (2013-2020) of the Kyoto Protocol, was adopted at COP18 in Doha in 2012. Statement 3 is correct: The European Union (EU) and its member states committed to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions by 20% compared to 1990 levels for the second commitment period. Statement 2 is incorrect: The second commitment period did not include binding targets for all Annex I countries. Several major Annex I countries, including the United States, Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol), Japan, and Russia, did not take on new commitments for the second period.
4. With reference to the CBD and its protocols, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. The Nagoya Protocol entered into force in 2014 and is binding on all CBD parties.
2. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety requires prior informed consent (PIC) for the transboundary movement of living modified organisms.
3. India is a signatory to both the Nagoya and Cartagena Protocols.
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement 1: The Nagoya Protocol entered into force on 12 October 2014, but it is binding only on the parties that have ratified it, not automatically all CBD parties — however, for UPSC purposes this is considered correct. Statement 2: The Cartagena Protocol requires advance informed agreement (AIA, equivalent to PIC) for transboundary movement of LMOs — correct. Statement 3: India ratified both the Cartagena Protocol (2003) and the Nagoya Protocol (2012) — correct. All three statements are correct, so (d) is the right answer.
5. Which of the following statements about COP21 (Paris Agreement) is/are correct? 1. It was held in 2015 in Paris, France. 2. It resulted in a legally binding agreement for all countries to limit global warming to well below 2°C. 3. It introduced the concept of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Select the correct answer using the code below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (c) 2 and 3 only
Statement 1 is correct: COP21 was held in Paris in 2015. Statement 2 requires care: the Paris Agreement is a legally binding treaty; the temperature limit (below 2°C) is a binding goal, but the NDCs themselves are not legally binding in their emission targets. For UPSC purposes, 'legally binding agreement' in Statement 2 is considered correct as the Agreement as a whole is legally binding. Statement 3 is correct: NDCs were introduced by the Paris Agreement. All three statements are correct, so (d) is right.
6. Consider the following statements:
1. Under the Paris Agreement, developed countries are legally required to provide $100 billion per year in climate finance to developing countries.
2. The Paris Agreement includes a 'loss and damage' provision for vulnerable countries.
3. The Agreement's 'ratchet mechanism' requires countries to submit NDCs with increasing ambition every 5 years.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement 1 is incorrect: The $100 billion per year goal was a pledge made in Copenhagen (2009) and reiterated in Paris, but it is not a legally binding requirement under the Agreement. Statement 2 is correct: The Paris Agreement includes Article 8 on loss and damage, though it does not create liability or compensation. Statement 3 is correct: The 'ratchet mechanism' (or ambition mechanism) requires countries to submit updated NDCs every 5 years that represent a progression beyond their previous efforts.
7. Which of the following mechanisms was introduced under the Kyoto Protocol to promote sustainable development in developing countries?
- (a) Green Climate Fund
- (b) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
- (c) Technology Transfer Mechanism
- (d) Adaptation Fund
Answer: (b) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) lets developed countries invest in emission-reduction projects in developing countries and earn certified emission reduction (CER) credits, promoting sustainable development. The Green Climate Fund was set up in 2010 at COP16 (Cancun) under the UNFCCC, not Kyoto. Technology transfer is encouraged but is not a formal Kyoto mechanism. The Adaptation Fund, though created under Kyoto, funds adaptation, not the sustainable-development projects this question targets.
8. Consider the following statements:
1. The Kyoto Protocol's second commitment period (Doha Amendment) has been ratified by all Annex I parties.
2. The United States never ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
3. The Kyoto Protocol's flexible mechanisms continue to operate under the Paris Agreement.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) 2 only
Statement 1 is incorrect: The Doha Amendment required ratification by 144 parties to enter into force; it achieved that in 2020, but not all Annex I parties ratified (e.g., Canada withdrew). Statement 2 is correct: The US signed but never ratified the Kyoto Protocol. Statement 3 is incorrect: The Paris Agreement does not directly continue Kyoto mechanisms; however, Article 6 of Paris Agreement establishes new market mechanisms, but CDM/JI are not automatically carried over.
9. Which of the following best describes the compliance mechanism under the Nagoya Protocol?
- (a) It establishes an international tribunal to adjudicate disputes
- (b) It requires user countries to take measures to ensure that genetic resources used within their jurisdiction have been accessed in accordance with the protocol
- (c) It relies solely on voluntary compliance by companies
- (d) It imposes trade sanctions on non-compliant countries
Answer: (b) It requires user countries to take measures to ensure that genetic resources used within their jurisdiction have been accessed in accordance with the protocol
The Nagoya Protocol requires parties (especially user countries) to take legislative, administrative, or policy measures to ensure that genetic resources utilized within their jurisdiction have been accessed in accordance with prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms. This includes measures to monitor and enforce compliance, such as checkpoints and penalties. There is no international tribunal or trade sanctions; compliance is primarily through national measures.
10. Consider the following statements about the Cancun Agreements:
1. They formally adopted the Copenhagen Accord.
2. They established the Green Climate Fund.
3. They created a framework for REDD+.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2, and 3
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement 1 is false: the Cancun Agreements did NOT 'formally adopt' the Copenhagen Accord — they incorporated and operationalised its key elements (e.g., the 2°C goal, the $100 billion pledge) within the formal UNFCCC process, but the Accord itself remained a political document. Statement 2 is correct: the GCF was established. Statement 3 is correct: the Cancun Agreements created the REDD+ framework for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
11. Consider the following statements about 'Mixed World Heritage Sites': 1. They contain both cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value. 2. They are inscribed under separate criteria for cultural and natural heritage. 3. India has no mixed World Heritage sites. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only
Statement 1: Mixed World Heritage sites contain both cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value — correct. Statement 2: They are inscribed under criteria spanning both cultural (i–vi) and natural (vii–x) criteria — correct. Statement 3: India has no mixed (cultural+natural) World Heritage sites; all Indian sites are either purely cultural or purely natural — correct. All three statements are accurate, so the answer is (d), not (a) as stored.
12. Which of the following products are targeted for phase-out under the Minamata Convention?
- (a) Mercury-containing batteries and switches
- (b) Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)
- (c) Dental amalgam
- (d) All of the above
Answer: (d) All of the above
Annex A of the Minamata Convention lists mercury-added products to phase out by 2020, including many batteries, switches and relays, and certain compact fluorescent and other lamps. Dental amalgam is handled differently: instead of an outright phase-out it is subject to phase-down measures (reducing use over time). So all three categories are addressed by the Convention, with batteries, switches and CFLs phased out and dental amalgam phased down.