Questions & explanations
1. Give an example of Grassmann's Law in Greek.
In Greek, the word 'thuō' (I sacrifice) has an aspirated 'th'. But in the future tense, it becomes 'thusō' with a plain 't' because the future suffix '-s' is not aspirated? Actually, a better example: the word 'ekhō' (I have) has an aspirated 'kh', but in the future 'hexō', the 'kh' becomes 'k'? Wait, need correct example: The verb 'trephō' (I nourish) has 'ph' at the end, but in the aorist 'ethrepsa', the 'ph' becomes 'p' because the following 's' is not aspirated? Actually, Grassmann's Law applies to reduplication: 'thuō' reduplicated becomes 'tethuka' (I have sacrificed) where the first 'th' becomes 't' because the second syllable has 'th'? Let's use: 'thrix' (hair) -> genitive 'trikhos' shows the first 'th' becomes 't' because the second 'kh' is aspirated.
2. Compare the cognitive effects of diglossia with those of bilingualism. Are they similar or different?
Both diglossia and bilingualism involve managing two language systems, so they share cognitive benefits like improved executive control. However, in diglossia, the two varieties are closely related (e.g., standard and dialect), while bilingualism involves distinct languages. This difference may affect how the brain separates them. Bilinguals often have to suppress one language entirely, whereas diglossic speakers switch between registers within the same language. Research suggests both groups show enhanced attention and task-switching abilities. Yet, the metalinguistic awareness from diglossia might be more about social rules, while bilingualism emphasizes grammatical differences. Overall, the effects are broadly similar but not identical.
3. Apply Lachmann's Law to explain why the Latin verb 'ago' has 'actus' with a short 'a' but 'regō' has 'rēctus' with a long 'e'.
In 'ago', the root 'ag-' ends in a voiced 'g'. According to Lachmann's Law, the vowel should lengthen, but 'actus' has a short 'a'. This is because the law applies only to roots where the vowel is short and the root ends in a voiced stop. However, 'ag-' has a short 'a', and the past participle is 'actus' with a short 'a', so it seems like an exception. Actually, 'ago' does follow the law: 'actus' has a short 'a' because the root vowel is short and the law lengthens it? Wait, 'actus' is short, so maybe 'ago' is an exception. Let's correct: 'lego' (I read) has 'lectus' with short 'e', not long. So the law is not universal. Better example: 'frango' -> 'frāctus' shows lengthening. So 'ago' might be irregular.
4. Explain Poplack's free morpheme constraint with an example.
The free morpheme constraint says you cannot switch between a bound morpheme and a free morpheme. A bound morpheme is a part that cannot stand alone, like the plural -s in English. A free morpheme can stand alone, like 'cat'. So you cannot say 'cats' with the English plural -s attached to a Spanish word like 'gato' to make 'gatos'? Actually, that would be a switch of bound morpheme? Wait: The constraint says you cannot switch a bound morpheme from one language onto a stem from another language. For example, you cannot say 'run-eando' (running) with Spanish -eando on English 'run' because -eando is a bound morpheme from Spanish. So the switch must be at a word boundary, not inside a word.
5. Design a language policy that balances the use of high and low varieties in education, and explain its benefits.
A balanced policy could use the low variety as the medium of instruction in early grades to build foundational literacy, then gradually introduce the high variety as a subject and later as the medium for some classes. For example, teach math and science in the low variety first, and reading and writing in the high variety. This allows children to learn concepts in their familiar language while acquiring the high variety. Benefits include better comprehension, higher engagement, and preservation of the low variety. It also reduces the gap between home and school language, leading to more equitable education. Such a policy respects both varieties and prepares students for formal domains.
6. How might diglossia influence a child's ability to learn a third language?
A child raised with diglossia already knows that language varies by context, which can make learning a third language easier. They understand that different situations call for different words or grammar. This awareness helps them grasp the concept of code-switching in the new language. Additionally, their cognitive flexibility from managing two varieties may aid in learning new vocabulary and rules. However, if the high variety is very different from the low one, the child might have more practice with abstract language, which transfers to learning formal aspects of a third language. Overall, diglossia can provide a foundation that supports additional language learning.
7. Design a simple classroom activity that addresses a diglossia-related reading challenge.
Create a matching game where children pair words from the low variety with their high variety equivalents. For example, on one card write the low variety word 'keef' (how) and on another card write the high variety 'kayfa'. Children must match them. Then, use the matched pairs in sentences: first say the sentence in the low variety, then in the high variety. This activity helps children see the correspondence between the two forms. It also builds vocabulary for reading. Another activity: read a short paragraph in the high variety aloud, then ask children to retell it in the low variety to check comprehension. This bridges the gap between spoken and written language.
8. Design a simple experiment to test whether diglossic children have better metalinguistic awareness than monolingual children.
Take two groups: diglossic children (e.g., who speak a dialect and standard language) and monolingual children (speak only one variety). Give them a task where they must judge if sentences are grammatically correct in a made-up language. For example, show sentences like 'He run fast' and ask if it sounds right. Diglossic children might be better because they are used to noticing differences between their varieties. Another task: ask them to explain why a certain word is wrong in a formal context. Measure how many correct judgments they make and how well they explain. If diglossic children score higher, it suggests they have stronger metalinguistic awareness.
9. Compare a language policy that supports both the high and low varieties with one that supports only the high variety.
A policy that supports both varieties, like in Switzerland where both standard German and Swiss German are used, allows children to learn in their mother tongue first. This can improve literacy and confidence. In contrast, a policy that supports only the high variety, like in many Arab countries, forces children to learn in a language they do not speak, causing difficulties. The inclusive policy respects local identity and reduces inequality, while the exclusive policy may promote national unity but at the cost of educational challenges. The inclusive approach often leads to better overall learning outcomes because children build on what they already know.
10. Compare the Greek diglossia situation with that of the Arab world today.
Both involve a high variety (Katharevousa/Modern Standard Arabic) and a low variety (Dimotiki/colloquial Arabic) that are related but distinct. In Greece, the conflict was resolved by adopting the low variety as the standard. In the Arab world, the high variety remains the official standard, and the low varieties are not standardized. However, both face challenges in education because children speak the low variety but learn in the high variety. In Greece, the resolution came through political change; in the Arab world, no such resolution has occurred, and diglossia persists. The Greek case shows that resolution is possible but requires societal consensus.
11. How can teachers help children who speak a low variety to become better readers in the high variety?
Teachers can start by using the low variety to explain concepts and then gradually introduce the high variety. For example, they can read a story in the low variety first, then read the same story in the high variety. This helps children connect the two forms. Teachers should also explicitly teach the differences between the varieties, such as vocabulary and sentence structure. Using pictures and real objects can make the high variety more concrete. Additionally, encouraging children to talk about their own experiences in the high variety builds familiarity. Consistent exposure to the high variety through songs and videos also supports reading.
12. Give an example of a language policy that promotes the high variety, and explain its effects on education.
In many Arab countries, the policy requires that all school subjects be taught in Modern Standard Arabic (the high variety), while children speak colloquial Arabic at home. This means that from the first day of school, children must learn in a variety they do not speak fluently. As a result, many children fall behind in reading and writing because they have to master a new language. Teachers may also struggle to explain concepts in a variety that feels unnatural. This policy can widen the gap between those who have exposure to the high variety at home and those who do not. It often leads to lower educational outcomes for disadvantaged groups.